Adjectives
Table of contents
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify substantives. They can describe a noun or pronoun or help disambiguate one noun from another noun. Take a look at the examples below:
- The tired teacher woke up at 6am.
- The quick, brown fox jumped over the lazy dog.
- Spring break was too short.
- The students became happy.
In each of these sentences, the bolded adjectives modify nouns. The teacher is tired. The fox is quick and brown, and the dog is lazy.
This applies in the third and fourth sentences as well. Note that short tells us more about spring break, and the adjective modifies spring break even though it occurs on the opposite side of the linking verb “was.” Similarly, happy modifies “students” even though it occurs on the opposite side of the linking verb “became.” The core function of an adjective is to modify a substantive, whether it’s placed close to it or on the other side of a linking verb like “to be” or “to become.”
Noun-Adjective Agreement
In Greek, the primary way that we can tell that an adjective modifies a noun is through a principle called noun-adjective agreement:
noun-adjective agreement: an adjective must match the noun that it modifies in gender, case, and number.
This means that, for example, if a noun is in the masculine nominative plural, any adjective that modifies it must be in the masculine nominative plural as well. If the noun is feminine dative singular, then any adjective that modifies it must be feminine dative singular.
Adjective Declension
If an adjective must match a noun in gender, case, and number, it stands to reason that the adjective itself can be declined into any gender, case, and number. This concept is familiar to us from the definite article (which itself is basically an adjective!).
Like the definite article, adjectives can decline into any of the combinations of aspects that we’ve discussed so far:
- gender: masculine, feminine, neuter
- number: singular, plural, [dual]
- case: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, [vocative]
Like nouns, however, adjectives belong to certain groups and subgroups that determine what sets of endings can indicate gender, case, and number. These groups, also called declensions, largely take their endings from nouns.
There are two major adjective declensions, each with two sub-groups:
- vowel declension (1st/2nd declension)
- three-termination (-ος, -α/-η, -ον) (2-1-2)
- two-termination (-ος, -ον)
- consonant declension (3rd declension-ish)
- three-termination (–, -α, –) (3-1-3)
- two-termination (-ων, -ον or -ης, -ες)
Each of these declensions and sub-groups has certain features and rules of declension that will be discussed under the appropriate subheading and ending chart below.
Vowel-Declension
Three-Termination (2-1-2)
Three-termination vowel declension adjectives have a dictionary entry that ends in the pattern -ος, -α/-η, -ον. In the feminine, -α is used with an adjective stem that ends in ε, ι, or ρ; -η is used elsewhere. Here are some quick examples from the Week 6 Vocabulary.
- μίκρος, μίκρα, μίκρον - small
- ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν - noble, good
- κάκος, κάκη, κάκον - bad
The three elements of the dictionary entry correspond respectively to masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, and neuter nominative singular. “Three-termination” means that there are three distinct endings of the nominative singular for the adjective. In order to decline this adjective, you simply take the -ος off the masculine nominative singular and apply the appropriate ending for the gender, case, and number of the adjective that you want.
You’ll notice that all of these endings are familiar from 1st and 2nd declension nouns; masculine and neuter endings derive from 2nd declension, and feminine endings derive from 1st declension. For this reason, we can also call a three-termination vowel declension adjective a “2-1-2” adjective, with each number corresponding to the declension endings that you use for the respective gender: masculine uses 2nd declension, feminine uses 1st declension, and neuter uses 2nd declension.
| Masc. | Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | -ος | -α / -η | -ον |
| Gen. Sg. | -ου | -ας / -ης | -ου |
| Dat. Sg. | -ῳ | -ᾳ / -ῃ | -ῳ |
| Acc. Sg. | -ον | -αν / -ην | -ον |
| Nom. Pl. | -οι | -αι | -α |
| Gen. Pl. | -ων | -ων | -ων |
| Dat. Pl. | -οις | -αις | -οις |
| Acc. Pl. | -ους | -ας | -α |
Here’s an example of a fully declined 2-1-2 adjective: ἀγαθός, ἀγαθή, ἀγαθόν - noble, good.
| Masc. | Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | ἀγαθός | ἀγαθή | ἀγαθόν |
| Gen. Sg. | ἀγαθοῦ | ἀγαθῆς | ἀγαθοῦ |
| Dat. Sg. | ἀγαθῷ | ἀγαθῇ | ἀγαθῷ |
| Acc. Sg. | ἀγαθόν | ἀγαθήν | ἀγαθόν |
| Nom. Pl. | ἀγαθοί | ἀγαθαί | ἀγαθά |
| Gen. Pl. | ἀγαθῶν | ἀγαθῶν | ἀγαθῶν |
| Dat. Pl. | ἀγαθοῖς | ἀγαθαῖς | ἀγαθοῖς |
| Acc. Pl. | ἀγαθούς | ἀγαθάς | ἀγαθά |
And when we pair an adjective like this with a noun, recall that it must match in gender, case, and number, but not necessarily ending, especially if the noun and the adjective belong to different declensions. For example:
- ὁ ἀγαθός ἄνθρωπος, “the good person” (masculine nominative singular)
But:
- τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ἀνδρός, “of the good man”
The -ου ending of the adjective does not match the -ος ending of the noun, but because both the adjective and the noun are masculine genitive singular, the pairing of adjective and noun is sound.
Two-Termination
Two-termination vowel declension adjectives are essentially 2-1-2s with the feminine column (the “1”) removed. Here are examples of dictionary entries for two-termination vowel declension adjectives:
- ἄδικος, ἄδικον - unjust
- ἀθάνατος, ἀθάνατον - undying, immortal
You’ll notice that there are only two Greek forms in the entry that end in the pattern -ος, -ον. This differentiates two-terminations from 2-1-2s because of the absence of an entry ending in -α or -η.
In the absence of discrete feminine endings, the first column of the paradigm is used for both masculine and feminine forms of the adjective. Hence, the name “two-termination”, for the fact that there are only two forms of the nominative singular: one for masculine and feminine, and one for neuter.
| Masc./Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | -ος | -ον |
| Gen. Sg. | -ου | -ου |
| Dat. Sg. | -ῳ | -ῳ |
| Acc. Sg. | -ον | -ον |
| Nom. Pl. | -οι | -α |
| Gen. Pl. | -ων | -ων |
| Dat. Pl. | -οις | -οις |
| Acc. Pl. | -ους | -α |
Here’s an example of a fully declined two-termination vowel declension adjective: ἄδικος, ἄδικον - unjust
| Masc./Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | ἄδικος | ἄδικον |
| Gen. Sg. | ἀδίκου | ἀδίκου |
| Dat. Sg. | ἀδίκῳ | ἀδίκῳ |
| Acc. Sg. | ἄδικον | ἄδικον |
| Nom. Pl. | ἄδικοι | ἄδικα |
| Gen. Pl. | ἀδίκων | ἀδίκων |
| Dat. Pl. | ἀδίκοις | ἀδίκοις |
| Acc. Pl. | ἀδίκους | ἄδικα |
Two-termination vowel declension adjectives, like 2-1-2s, must match the nouns that they describe in gender, case, and number, so we must be extra careful not to conflate “same ending” with “matching,” especially if the adjective and the noun do not belong to the same declension groups. For example:
- οἱ ἄδικοι ἄνθρωποι, “the unjust people” (masculine nominative plural)
But:
- τὴν ἄδικον γνώμην, “the unjust opinion” (feminine accusative singular)
Because ἄδικος is two-termination, the same form (ἄδικον) is used for both masculine accusative singular and feminine accusative singular.
Consonant Declension
Consonant declension adjectives exhibit a wide variety of patterns and idiosyncrasies. While I will do my best to summarize the features of the consonant declension under each subgroup below, please be aware that there will be a lot of exceptions to these rules and morphological features that we have yet to practice that will result in strange forms later on down the line. For ease of introduction, though, I will use only “regular” examples and delineate the general rules that govern consonant declension adjectives.
Three-Termination (3-1-3)
Like the vowel declension, the consonant declension of adjectives has two subgroups: three-termination and two-termination. These distinctions mean the same thing as in the vowel declension: three-termination adjectives have three distinct forms for the nominative singular (masculine, feminine, and neuter), while two-termination adjectives have only two distinct forms for the nominative singular (masculine/feminine and neuter).
Three-termination consonant declension adjectives, however, use a strange combination of third declension endings for masculine and neuter forms and first declension endings for feminine forms; hence, the alternative name for this subgroup: 3-1-3 (compare this with 2-1-2).
Moreover, the rules of declension are different for masculine and neuter versus feminine. Feminine forms of the adjective like vowel declension adjectives: remove the -α ending and add the appropriate endings for case and number. Masculine and neuter adjectives, however, have an adjective stem that you can get in one of two ways: either take it from the masculine genitive singular form or look to the dictionary entry, which will be marked with a notation like “(m./n. stem __).”
| Masc. | Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | – | -α | – |
| Gen. Sg. | -ος | -ης | -ος |
| Dat. Sg. | -ι | -ῃ | -ι |
| Acc. Sg. | -α | -αν | same as nom. |
| Nom. Pl. | -ες | -αι | -α |
| Gen. Pl. | -ων | -ων | -ων |
| Dat. Pl. | -σι(ν) | -αις | -σι(ν) |
| Acc. Pl. | -ας | -ας | -α |
Like third declension nouns, there are a variety of possible endings for the masculine and neuter nominative singular forms of a 3-1-3, hence the “–” in those boxes in the chart above.
Here is the paradigm for our sole 3-1-3 adjective in this unit: πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν - (sg.) each, every; (pl.) all
| Masc. | Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | πᾶς | πᾶσα | πᾶν |
| Gen. Sg. | πάντος | πάσης | πάντος |
| Dat. Sg. | πάντι | πάσῃ | πάντι |
| Acc. Sg. | πάντα | πᾶσαν | πᾶν |
| Nom. Pl. | πάντες | πᾶσαι | πάντα |
| Gen. Pl. | πάντων | πασῶν | πάντων |
| Dat. Pl. | πᾶσι(ν) | πάσαις | πᾶσι(ν) |
| Acc. Pl. | πάντας | πάσας | πάντα |
And the same disclaimers about matching this adjective to a noun apply: the adjective must match the noun in gender, case, and number, but not necessarily ending:
- τὰς πάσας συμφοράς, “all the outcomes” (feminine accusative plural)
But:
- τὸν πάντα δικαστήν, “every juror” (masculine accusative singular)
Note how not only do the adjective (πάντα) and the noun (δικαστήν) not share the same ending, but even the article (τὸν) differs as well. However, this is a correct formation: the article, the adjective, and the noun are all masculine accusative singular.
Two-Termination
Like its vowel declension counterpart, a two-termination consonant declension adjective yeets the feminine column in favor of one consolidated form for both masculine and feminine; the neuter has its own form.
| Masc./Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | – | – |
| Gen. Sg. | -ος | -ος |
| Dat. Sg. | -ι | -ι |
| Acc. Sg. | -α | same as nom. |
| Nom. Pl. | -ες | -α |
| Gen. Pl. | -ων | -ων |
| Dat. Pl. | -σι(ν) | -σι(ν) |
| Acc. Pl. | -ας | -α |
Two-termination consonant declension adjectives fall into one of two groups, based on their definition entries: -ων, -ον or -ης, -ες. The latter involves complicated contractions, so we will deal with it at a later point and focus for now on the -ων, -ον variant.
Like the masculine and neuter forms of 3-1-3s, all oblique forms of a two-termination consonant declension adjective will be built on a stem that is either apparent in the masculine/feminine genitive singular or in the dictionary entry. For example:
- σώφρων, σῶφρον (stem σώφρον-) - wise
Hence:
| Masc./Fem. | Neut. | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | σώφρων | σῶφρον |
| Gen. Sg. | σώφρονος | σώφρονος |
| Dat. Sg. | σώφρονι | σώφρονι |
| Acc. Sg. | σώφρονα | σῶφρον |
| Nom. Pl. | σώφρονες | σώφρονα |
| Gen. Pl. | σωφρόνων | σωφρόνων |
| Dat. Pl. | σώφροσι(ν) | σώφροσι(ν) |
| Acc. Pl. | σώφρονας | σώφρονα |
And again, the now usual disclaimers apply regarding adjective-noun agreement.
- τὰ σώφρονα πράγματα, “the wise deeds” (neuter nom./acc. plural)
But:
- τοῖς σώφροσι πολίταις, “to the wise citizens” (masculine dative plural)
Variable-Stem Adjectives
The adjectives μέγας and πολύς should, according to their dictionary entries, look like consonant-declension adjectives:
- μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα - big, great
- πολύς, πολλή, πολύ - much (singular); many (plural)
Recall that vowel-declension adjectives generally have endings in -ος, -η/-α, -ον or -ος, -ον, and adjectives that do not fall into that pattern are generally consonant-declension adjectives. However, μέγας and πολύς exhibit mostly vowel-declension patterns, with the sole exceptions being their masculine and neuter nominative and accusative singular forms:
- μέγας > stem in μεγάλ- or μεγα-
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | μέγας | μεγάλη | μέγα |
| Gen. Sg. | μεγάλου | μεγάλης | μεγάλου |
| Dat. Sg. | μεγάλῳ | μεγάλῃ | μεγάλῳ |
| Acc. Sg. | μέγαν | μεγάλην | μέγα |
| Nom. Pl. | μεγάλοι | μεγάλαι | μεγάλα |
| Gen. Pl. | μεγάλων | μεγάλων | μεγάλων |
| Dat. Pl. | μεγάλοις | μεγάλαις | μεγάλοις |
| Acc. Pl. | μεγάλους | μεγάλας | μεγάλα |
- πολύς > stem in πολλ- or πολυ-
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. Sg. | πολύς | πολλή | πολύ |
| Gen. Sg. | πολλοῦ | πολλῆς | πολλοῦ |
| Dat. Sg. | πολλῷ | πολλῇ | πολλῷ |
| Acc. Sg. | πολύν | πολλήν | πολύ |
| Nom. Pl. | πολλοί | πολλαί | πολλά |
| Gen. Pl. | πολλῶν | πολλῶν | πολλῶν |
| Dat. Pl. | πολλοῖς | πολλαῖς | πολλοῖς |
| Acc. Pl. | πολλούς | πολλάς | πολλά |
Substantive Adjectives
If an adjective is used on its own or with an article (i.e., without an explicit noun for it to modify), we consider it a substantive adjective, which means that we need to use its gender and number to supply a noun for the adjective to modify. Take a look at the following example:
- οἱ ἀγαθοὶ τοὺς λόγους εἶπον.
ἀγαθοί is masculine nominative plural. The gender (masculine) and number (plural) are enough to indicate the noun modified by the adjective, so even though a noun is not explicitly named in the sentence, we can supply one from the gender and number of the adjective: “The good people spoke the words.”
Keep in mind: in Greek, a group of people of mixed gender defaults to the masculine, so οἱ ἀγαθοί can either be “the good men” (if all members of the group are masculine) or “the good people” (if the group consists of people of more than one gender).
Here are some suggested translations for gender-number combinations in substantive adjectives:
- any gender, singular: “one”
- any gender, plural: “ones”
- masculine or feminine singular: “person”
- masculine singular: “man”
- feminine singular: “woman”
- neuter singular: “thing”
- masculine plural: “people, men”
- feminine plural: “people, women”
- neuter plural: “things”